| Remdesivir (GS-5734) | Ebola virusSARS infectionMERS infection | RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) inhibitor, can provide a scheme for blocking RNA replication | • Two compounds (remdesivir and chloroquine): inhibition of virus infection.• Inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 replication in Vero E6 cells at a half-maximal effective concentration (EC50) of 23.15 μM.• Reduction of pulmonary infiltrates on radiographs. | (Cao et al., 2020; Choy et al., 2020; Scavone et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2020; Williamson et al., 2020) |
| Chloroquine/hydroxychloroquine | Malaria | Chloroquine can inhibit a pre-entry step in the viral cycle by interfering with the binding of the viral particles to their cellular surface receptors | • Reduction in fever.• Improvement of lung computed tomography images.• Inhibition of activation of cells by MAP kinase and post-translational modification of M proteins.• Blockage of COVID-19 infection at an EC50 of 1.13 μM.• Inhibitio.n of SARS-CoV replication in Vero E6 cells• Reduction in body temperature and cough remission times.• Improvement of pneumonia symptoms. | (Chen et al., 2020; Cortegiani et al., 2020; Devaux et al., 2020; Gao et al., 2020; Kumar et al., 2020; Million et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2020; White, 1996) |
| Niclosamide | SARS-CoVTapeworm infectionMERS-CoV Anthelminthic drug | Uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation or stimulation of ATPase activity | • Suppression of cytopathic effects of SARS-CoV at a concentration of 1 μM.• Inhibition of SARS-CoV replication in Vero E6 cells at an EC50 of 0.1 μM.• Inhibition of viral antigen synthesis at concentration of 1.5 μM.• Inhibition of MERS-CoV replication in Vero B4 cells at concentration of 10 μM.• Antiviral effect towards SARS-CoV-2 at half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 0.28 μM. | (Andrews et al., 1982; Gassen et al., 2019; Jeon et al., 2020; Wen et al., 2007; Wu et al., 2004) |
| Ivermectin | SARS-CoV-2Anti-parasitic drugCOVID-19 candidate | Inhibition of nuclear transport mediated by the importin α/β1 heterodimer (IMPα/β-1), responsible for the translocation of various viral proteins | • Reduction in the SARS-CoV-2 viral RNA at a concentration of 5 μM.• Inhibition of IMPα/β1-mediated nuclear import of viral proteins.• Promotion of structural changes in proteins by inducing unfolding/folding | (Caly et al., 2020; Paz et al., 2020; Wagstaff et al., 2012) |
| Lopinavir/ritonavir (Kaleta®) | 2019-nCoV pneumoniaCOVID-19 candidate | Inhibition of the protease activity of the coronavirus | • Inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 replication at an EC50 of 26.63 μM.• Lopinavir 400 mg/ritonavir 100 mg: Improvement of dyspnoea and oxygen requirement and reduction in lung lesions on chest radiographs.• Lopinavir 200 mg/ritonavir 50 mg: Reduction in β-coronavirus load, coronavirus titres.• Compounds (lopinavir/arbidol and Shufeng Jiedu Capsule): Improvement of pneumonia symptoms.• Compounds (lopinavir 80 mg/ritonavir 20 mg, interferon [IFN] aerosol 5 million units [MU], arbidol 200 mg): Restoration of body temperature and physiological mechanisms, no evident toxic effects, reduction in the abnormal proportion of white blood cells, lymphocytes, and C-reactive protein.• Compounds (lopinavir 200 mg/ritonavir 50 mg, IFN 5 MU, arbidol 200 mg): Antiviral therapy• Compounds (lopinavir 400 mg/ritonavir 100 mg, arbidol 200 mg): Alleviation of lung lesions and decrease in the COVID-19 viral load. | (Cao et al., 2020; Choy et al., 2020; Deng et al., 2020; Kim et al., 2020; Lim et al., 2020; Yu et al., 2020) |
| Favipiravir (T-705, Avigan®) | COVID-19 candidate | RdRp inhibitor, has been shown to be effective for influenza and Ebola virus infection treatment | • Favipiravir (Day 1: 1,600 mg twice, Days 2–14: 600 mg twice daily); plus IFN-α by aerosol inhalation (5 MU twice daily): Improvement in chest images.• Favipiravir (1,800 mg orally in the morning and evening, 800 mg twice daily from the evening): Alleviation of fever and acute respiratory distress syndrome.• Favipiravir (1,600 mg twice on day 1 and then 600 mg twice daily for another 7–10 days): Reduction in fever and cough and efficacy in the clinical recovery rate. | (Cai et al., 2020; Chen et al., 2020; Shinoda et al.) |
| EIDD-2801/EIDD-1931(β-D-N4-hydroxycytidine [NHC]) | SARS-CoV-2SARS-CoV-1MERS COVID-19 candidate | Targets viral RdRp (vRdRp) to induce error catastrophes beyond the error threshold allowed to sustain RNA virus quasi species | • Inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 at an EC50 of 0.08–0.3 μM, MERS at an EC50 of 0.15 μM, SARS-CoV-1 at an EC50 of 0.14 μM in Calu-3 cell. lines and primary human airway epithelial cells• Reduction in lung viral load and improvement of pulmonary function in SARS- and MERS-CoV mouse models.• Reduction in body weight loss and lung haemorrhage.• Non-synonymous substitutions through increased nucleotide transitions.• Antiviral activity against related zoonotic group 2b or 2c bat-coronavirus. | (Sheahan et al., 2020) |
| Convalescent plasma | COVID-19 candidate | The donor anti-SARS-CoV-19 immunoglobulins (IgG and IgM) neutralizes the virus | • Improvement in body temperature, Sequential Organ Failure Assessment scores, and PAO2/FIO2 ratio.• Increase in neutralizing antibody titres and negative testing for SARS-CoV-2.• The convalescent plasma obtained from a male donor: Improvement of severe pneumonia and acute respiratory distress syndrome.• The convalescent plasma obtained from recovered COVID-19 donor: Improvement of symptoms, increased resolution of consolidation, and discontinuation of SARS-CoV-2 shedding and respiratory failure. | (Ahn et al., 2020; Chen et al., 2020; Roback and Guarner, 2020; Ye et al., 2020; Zeng et al., 2020) |